[Consolidated Reply] Query 5: Transboundary Haze Monitoring and Management in Asia-Pacific

Bangladesh recognizes that transboundary haze poses serious public health, environmental, and economic risks, particularly in densely populated and industrially active regions. Effective monitoring and management require an integrated approach involving technology, governance, and regional cooperation.

Key Experiences and Practices:

1. Early Warning and Monitoring Systems:
   • Deployment of satellite-based remote sensing and ground-level air quality monitoring stations to detect haze-prone areas.
   • Integration of AI and predictive analytics to forecast haze events and pollutant dispersion patterns.
2. Regional Cooperation:
   • Collaboration with neighbouring countries through data-sharing agreements, joint monitoring programs, and regional forums (similar to ASEAN’s Haze Agreement framework) to enhance timely response.
   • Participation in international knowledge-sharing platforms to adopt best practices for haze mitigation.
3. Policy and Regulatory Measures:
   • Enforcement of stricter land-use policies, controlled burning bans, and sustainable agricultural practices to minimize haze sources.
   • Promotion of cross-sectoral policies linking forestry, agriculture, energy, and disaster management agencies.
4. Community Engagement and Awareness:
   • Public awareness campaigns highlighting health risks and preventive measures during haze events.
   • Use of mobile alerts and digital platforms to inform citizens in real-time.
5. Innovation and Technology Integration:
   • Incorporation of AI-driven remote sensing, IoT air quality sensors, and drone surveillance for real-time haze detection.
   • Development of decision-support dashboards for authorities to coordinate timely interventions.

Outlook:
Bangladesh emphasizes that transboundary haze management requires a multi-level approach combining technology, policy, and community participation. Strengthening regional collaboration and sharing data, experiences, and innovative solutions will be key to reducing health risks and environmental impacts across the Asia-Pacific region.

Transboundary Haze Monitoring and Management in the Asia-Pacific Poses an international frontier and multi countries challenge to existing monarch idea-logy of national jurisdiction. It urges and necessitates international agreements not only limited to bilateral coordination for countries but unto a regional level to mobilize solution and disseminate key findings between the stake holders for transboundary pollution management and controlling its effect. Indeed, the regions like ASEAN, SAARC, GCC, PAN, Pacific Island, all have been in furious condition due to pollution hazards like haze, acidic rain, fog and many more, and all these include many cuts and control beyond borders. Yet legal frame work, regulation by agreement and policy, mutual trust among neighbor countries all are needed to be on inter government panel and via government support for any plan to be implemented with practical approaches.

Recent years have shown how air pollution in Asia and the Pacific has shifted from a localised issue to a regional one. PM2.5 peaks often coincide with crop-residue burning, long dry seasons, and changing wind patterns, which means national systems must now combine real-time monitoring with cross-border information flows.

Several technological advances have made monitoring more responsive. Low-cost sensor networks, supported by AI calibration models, are now used in many cities to supplement reference-grade stations. These sensors send data directly to national databases and public dashboards, providing street-level readings that were not available a few years ago. Satellite tools such as MODIS and VIIRS have also improved early detection of fire hotspots, helping track biomass-burning events that lead to haze episodes. Digital forecasting tools are becoming more reliable. Machine-learning models now integrate meteorological data with pollutant measurements to predict PM2.5 surges hours in advance. These systems help agencies issue health advisories and prepare emergency responses more effectively. Some countries have also introduced automatic shutdown systems in factories based on threshold breaches recorded by continuous emission monitors.

On the regional front, cooperation is growing, though at different speeds. The most active initiatives involve shared satellite-data platforms, coordinated enforcement days, and cross-border hot-spot verification teams. There is also a shift toward shared emission inventories and uniform reporting standards. These help countries compare data, identify seasonal patterns, and align enforcement strategies. Some regions have created bilateral technical committees dedicated to haze episodes, allowing environmental, agricultural, and meteorological agencies to coordinate responses more quickly.

Newer partnerships are testing early-warning exchanges, where alerts on biomass-burning events or industrial upsets are passed across borders within hours. These systems rely on open APIs and cloud-based platforms, allowing both national agencies and local researchers to interpret the same information. The rise of citizen-science networks, linked to university laboratories, has strengthened public participation in monitoring and provided additional data during peak haze periods.

Experience across the region suggests that technology works best when paired with a culture of information-sharing. Reliable monitoring, open datasets, and clear communication protocols help countries act faster and reduce health impacts when haze crosses borders.

Transboundary haze in Iran refers almost exclusively to Sand and Dust Storms (SDS), rather than the forest-fire smoke “haze” common in Southeast Asia. Monitoring and managing this issue are a top priority for Iran because a significant portion of the dust is “transboundary,” originating from neighboring countries.

The “haze” in Iran is technically suspended mineral dust (particulate matter like PM10 and PM2.5).

• External Sources (The Majority): Research indicates that roughly 70–80% of SDS events in western and southwestern Iran originate outside its borders. The primary hotspots are in Iraq (dried wetlands and abandoned farmlands), Syria, Saudi Arabia, and increasingly Turkmenistan and Afghanistan in the northeast.

Monitoring Systems

Iran’s monitoring relies heavily on satellite data, as ground-based cross-border networks are not yet fully integrated with its neighbors.

• Satellite & Remote Sensing: This is the most effective tool currently used. The Iranian Space Agency and Meteorological Organization use data from satellites to track the formation and movement of dust plumes before they cross the border.
• Ground Monitoring: Iran has a domestic network of air quality monitoring stations in border provinces. However, these stations measure pollution after it arrives.
• The Gap: There is no real-time, shared data network with Iraq or Syria. Iranian officials have repeatedly called for a “regional early warning system,” but as of late 2024/early 2025, this remains a goal rather than a fully functioning reality.

Management & Diplomacy

Iran has attempted to position itself as a regional leader in environmental diplomacy to solve this crisis, but results have been mixed.

• Diplomatic Agreements (MoUs): Iran has signed multiple Memorandums of Understanding (MoUs) with Iraq, Syria, Kuwait, and the UAE. These agreements theoretically cover knowledge exchange, joint technical committees, and soil stabilization projects.
• The “Tehran Conference” (2023) & UN Resolutions: In September 2023, Iran hosted an international conference on SDS, leading to a UN resolution. Iran proposed establishing a regional organization and a regional fund specifically for combating dust storms.

Now, for better conditions to improve our activities, we need Funding to rely on standard UN channels and diplomacy rather than a new, robust regional pot of money.

Pakistan has national policies and programs (National Clean Air Policy / Pakistan Clean Air Programme) that set sectoral targets (brick kilns, transport fuel, industrial emissions) and encourage monitoring and smog management. The NCAP and related national documents push for upgrading brick kilns, controlling open burning and strengthening monitoring.

Punjab province, the Punjab Clean Air Program (PCAP) / Smog Mitigation Action Plan, Punjab has launched a province-level program (Punjab Clean Air Program, PCAP) supported by a ~US$300 million World Bank operation. Key, concrete measures in the approved PCAP/Smog Mitigation package include:

Expansion of regulatory-grade air quality monitoring across Punjab (adding more fixed stations and integrating sensor networks) to get higher spatial coverage; Sectoral abatement measures: procurement/support for ~5,000 “super-seeders” and alternative crop-residue management to reduce seasonal agricultural burning, retrofit and phase-out programs for brick kilns, actions on industrial and transport emissions; Transport interventions: support for 600 electric buses to shift modal share and reduce vehicular emissions; Strengthening lab capacity: establishing/enhancing fuel testing labs and institutional capacity for enforcement and inspections; Public awareness, early warning and smog action plans (operational Smog Mitigation Action Plan with seasonal response measure) Monitoring & early-warning specifics for Punjab. The PCAP explicitly finances expansion of regulatory air-quality stations and integration of monitoring, plus investments in information systems for public alerts and decision support i.e., better data feeding into early-warning and smog-action triggers. The Smog Mitigation Strategy and PCAP documents identify data-driven triggers for temporary measures (traffic restrictions, construction controls, advisories) during high-pollution episodes.

On-the-ground mitigation pilots — The program also finances deployment of crop-residue equipment (super-seeders), electrification of bus fleets, brick-kiln upgrades and other targeted investments that reduce emissions at source, all measures that lower the frequency and intensity of winter smog and agricultural-burning episodes.

Cross-border / transboundary aspects for Pakistan, the World Bank PCAP analysis acknowledges transboundary contributions (it estimates a share of PM2.5 originates outside Punjab) and emphasizes regional airshed approaches, but Pakistan currently relies mostly on scientific data (satellite products, modeling) and multilateral platforms for attribution rather than formal cross-border enforcement agreements comparable to ASEAN’s AATHP. In practice, Pakistan’s strategy combines domestic source control (agriculture, transport, industry, brick kilns) with better monitoring and modeling to understand and communicate transboundary influence.

Push data sharing with neighbours through technical channels (shared use of satellite/forecast products, joint workshops and scientist-to-scientist exchange) even if formal legal mechanisms are limited, it’s faster and builds the evidence base for later policy coordination.

Q: Dear members, thanks for your comments. I am wondering if there are any inter-governmental mechanisms for planning for and resolving trans boundary haze and pollution. Any inputs from members?

ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution (AATHP) is an inter-governmental mechanism for planning for and resolving trans boundary haze and pollution.

• The first legally binding regional agreement of its kind (in force since 2003).
• Focuses on prevention, monitoring, early warning, and emergency response.
• Includes mechanisms like:
  1. Regional haze monitoring systems
  2. Joint emergency response
  3. Information and data sharing
  4. Challenges remain around enforcement and national implementation, but it is still the most structured model globally.

I will address these questions using my experience of Delhi, and these experiences can provide valuable insights into how countries are combating transboundary haze on both technological and political fronts. These experiences are also applicable elsewhere. I think the first step is to recognise that transboundary haze is the problem behind the local pollution experienced, and that is where producing sufficient technical evidence matters.

1. Advances in technology and innovative air-pollution control systems in the Asia-Pacific region. India’s experience, especially in Delhi, shows how recent technological advancements are changing PM2.5 and transboundary haze monitoring throughout the Asia-Pacific. Delhi now uses extensive networks of affordable sensors, ISRO’s satellite-based fire and aerosol tracking, real-time forecasting via SAFAR, and AI-driven alerts for stubble-burning incidents, all of which provide strong evidence of local pollution sources and effects. Similar innovations are being implemented across the region: ASEAN countries are enhancing remote-sensing systems, hotspot detection tools, digital fire-risk dashboards, and online emission-reporting platforms to improve monitoring of industrial pollution, agricultural burning, and long-range haze transport. These technologies improve the accuracy of early warnings and aid in quicker, targeted mitigation, although India’s experience indicates that their success still relies significantly on enforcement and cooperation across jurisdictions. I believe these experiences and technologies are scalable throughout the region and applicable elsewhere.

2. Enhancing cross-border collaboration in the Asia-Pacific to tackle transboundary air pollution. Delhi’s haze events, often affected by pollution from neighbouring states, show the need for joint governance to address transboundary air pollution. In India, air-shed management discussions, coordinated stubble-burning control initiatives, and shared monitoring systems among Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh illustrate how data sharing and collective enforcement can lead to better results. Regionally, similar initiatives are developing throughout the Asia-Pacific: the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution has bolstered institutional collaboration, while nations are increasingly implementing bilateral data-sharing systems for hotspot alerts, emission inventories, and seasonal haze predictions.

New regional projects backed by UNESCAP and other organisations are encouraging standardised monitoring practices, cooperative early-warning systems, and coordinated mitigation efforts. Collectively, these actions emphasise that strong cross-border collaboration, rooted in clear data sharing and synchronised enforcement, is crucial for lessening the intensity and frequency of transboundary haze.

Having said this, I must also say that I am not very optimistic about the possible effectiveness of any regional cooperation in addressing transboundary haze or for that matter, on any environmental issue that we are facing today, and we have ample evidence for it. This is because each country tends to prioritise its own short-term interests. Like in the Prisoner’s Dilemma, countries often gain more by delaying action, under-reporting emissions, or shifting responsibility, while hoping neighbours will act first. Past examples, from river pollution control to regional fisheries management, show that even well-designed agreements struggle when enforcement is weak and trust is low. Without strong incentives and credible monitoring, countries may cooperate on paper but not in practice. This makes optimism difficult, even though cooperation remains essential.

Air pollution in the Asia-Pacific region increasingly reflects transboundary dynamics, where emissions generated in one location affect air quality far beyond political borders. According to the WHO World Air Quality Report 2024, over 97% of cities in the region exceed recommended PM₂.₅ limits, making haze a shared public-health and climate challenge rather than a localised environmental issue.

For instance, Delhi’s recurring winter haze represents one of South Asia’s most studied examples of transboundary air pollution. Scientific studies consistently show that post-monsoon crop residue burning in Punjab and Haryana, combined with local emissions and unfavourable meteorology, leads to extreme PM₂.₅ concentrations in Delhi between October and December. Atmospheric modelling published in Nature Communications confirms that during peak episodes, regional agricultural fires can contribute 30–50% of PM₂.₅ levels in Delhi, highlighting the regional nature of the problem rather than a city-only failure.

Satellite observations from MODIS and VIIRS have documented tens of thousands of fire incidents annually across northwest India during harvest seasons. Research in Science of the Total Environment demonstrates that smoke plumes from these fires are transported across state boundaries into Delhi-NCR within 24–72 hours under prevailing wind conditions. Despite policy interventions, economic constraints faced by farmers, limited alternatives, and uneven enforcement continue to sustain this practice.

In this regard, India has made significant progress in monitoring haze through the SAFAR (System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting and Research) platform, developed by IIT Madras under the Ministry of Earth Sciences. SAFAR integrates satellite data, emissions inventories, and meteorological models to provide 72-hour air-quality forecasts, supporting proactive measures such as the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP). These systems reflect best practices in science-policy integration but remain largely national in scope.

Apparently, the global scientific literature confirms that biomass burning emissions can travel thousands of kilometres, contributing to background aerosol concentrations across continents. A landmark Nature study (2023) quantified the global health burden of fire-sourced PM₂.₅, noting Africa as the world’s largest contributor to biomass burning emissions. However, it is important to clarify that no peer-reviewed evidence directly attributes a specific recent African fire event as the primary cause of Delhi’s pollution episodes. Instead, African fires contribute to hemispheric background aerosol loading, which can compound regional pollution under certain atmospheric conditions.

Additionally, countries such as Nepal and Bangladesh experience similar seasonal haze patterns linked to transboundary transport from the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Remote sensing and trajectory analysis published in Remote Sensing (MDPI) show that emissions from northern India influence winter PM₂.₅ levels in Kathmandu Valley and parts of Bangladesh, reinforcing the need for air-shed-based governance rather than national silos.

Further, technological interventions across India include in-situ crop residue management tools such as Happy Seeders, bio-decomposer sprays, and residue-to-bioenergy pathways. Evidence from Punjab indicates that sustained incentives and machinery access reduce fire counts, although scale remains a challenge. Low-cost sensor networks and AI-enabled source apportionment pilots are improving spatial understanding of pollution, while satellite-model integration is strengthening early warning capabilities.

Unlike Southeast Asia’s ASEAN Transboundary Haze Agreement, South Asia lacks a formal, binding framework for haze management. Current cooperation remains limited to data sharing among meteorological agencies and ad-hoc scientific collaboration. The absence of harmonised emission inventories, shared response triggers, and joint enforcement mechanisms limits collective effectiveness.

The way forward to address transboundary haze requires regional air-shed governance, shared early warning thresholds, and coordinated response actions. Investments in clean agricultural transitions, regional data platforms, and climate-aligned financing mechanisms are essential. Integrating haze into disaster risk reduction and climate resilience planning rather than treating it solely as an environmental issue can significantly strengthen preparedness and response across the Asia-Pacific.

Indonesia’s Regulation of the Minister of Environment and Forestry Number P.15/MenLHK/Setjen/Kum.1/2/2017 requires companies with fire-prone peatland concessions to install water table monitors, with data loggers compiling and transmitting data to the government, however there are limitations to real-time reporting.

In ASEAN, the newly introduced Roadmap (2023–2030) supports the operationalisation of the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution. It is aligned with the ASEAN Peatland Management Strategy (2023–2030), where peatland management is an important part of haze mitigation in the region. Of particular importance in the roadmap is the process of establishing the ASEAN Coordinating Centre for Transboundary Haze Pollution Control (ACC THPC), which has been pending for many years. There is also the ASEAN Specialised Meteorological Centre (ASMC), based in Singapore, which has an important role in regional early warning and reporting. It also serves as a support system for other ASEAN countries with less advanced meteorological capabilities. However, discrepancies between national meteorological data and ASMC data has complicated coordination.

Way Forward: A standardised Air Quality Index across ASEAN would be useful in ensuring that all ASEAN countries are interpreting the issue of air (haze) pollution in the same way, with similar parameters and definitions. Currently each country has its own air quality index, which means they are not speaking the same language when it comes to air pollution mitigation.

When it comes to forest and land fires, I think we have seen progress with stronger enforcement mechanisms in some parts of the Southern Mekong and provisions of carbon finance and alignment between climate pledges that have generated incentives for sustainable forestry. In the Norther Mekong region, we have seen some progress with the adoption of circular economy models for the productive use of biomass (that have discouraged open burning of agricultural residues). Companies that purchase rice have also encouraged farmers to curtail burning and have provided stronger incentives for non-burning crops and sustainable use of rice straw. In all regions, advances in satellite monitoring have helped to assess progress and track hotspots.

On a regional/subregional basis, countries in ASEAN agreed to a new haze free roadmap in 2024 that outlines a series of nine strategies that are intended to help the region eliminate haze from land and forest fires. The roadmap includes targets related to PM2.5 concentrations and have provisions encouraging countries to work across different sectors and levels of decision making to reach its targets. ASEAN has also adopted an investment framework to attract resources to help implement the roadmap. Finally, we are seeing some evidence of subregional cooperation under, for instance, Thailand’s Clear Sky Strategy.

India is addressing haze and PM2.5 through a mix of national policy, monitoring, and emergency controls, with the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) as the backbone, targeting up to a 40% reduction in particulate pollution by 2026 across 130+ polluted cities. The government has expanded real-time air quality monitoring through the Central Pollution Control Board, making PM2.5 data publicly available and actionable. In high-pollution regions like Delhi-NCR, the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) triggers automatic measures — such as construction bans, vehicle restrictions, and industrial shutdowns — when air quality deteriorates. India has also tightened vehicle emission standards (BS-VI), promoted electric vehicles, regulated brick kilns and industries, and taken steps to reduce crop-residue burning through subsidies and enforcement. While seasonal haze remains a challenge, especially in northern India, studies by CPCB, World Bank, and independent researchers show that cities implementing NCAP and GRAP measures have begun to see measurable PM2.5 reductions, indicating that India’s approach is shifting from reactive crisis management toward longer-term, data-driven air quality governance.

Dear Members,

Thank you very much for your nuanced responses. I wish to add a few points directly in answer to the two questions asked to strengthen our response to Ms. Irum.

Question 1: Technological advancements and innovative air-pollution control systems

As members responses have shown, air quality management is slowly evolving from discrete monitoring systems to integrated regional structures. Satellite-based fire data are now regularly combined with emission and atmospheric transport models to generate 72-to-96-hour smoke and PM₂.₅ forecasts, and disseminated through national meteorological agencies and regional air-quality networks.

The increased deployment of low-cost PM₂.₅ sensor networks, integrating AI-based calibration and data integration, has enhanced the coverage of monitoring and capability of countries to credibly tag haze episodes to regional biomass burning. Simultaneously, industrial emissions and stubble burning are being addressed through innovations such as bio-decomposers and waste-to-energy technologies.

I feel the technological response should be seen as an end-to-end sequence from fire detection to emission estimating to plume modelling to local exposure mapping and the mitigation measures to be enforced.

Question 2: Regional Cooperation examples

Significant among the regional frameworks would be the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution (2002) and the Second Haze-Free Roadmap (2023–2030). Sadly, South Asia does not have such a regional framework, even as collaboration on shared airsheds and scientific analyses of trans boundary PM₂.₅ contributions has increased. The next logical step would be to put in place streamlined standards, regular emission inventories and inter-country data sharing.

In this context, the Geo-Informatics and Space Technology Development Agency (GISTDA) project may merit a mention. The project integrates MODIS and VIIRS data sets with aerosol indices and ground data to create real-time maps of stubble burning and movement of haze across boundaries. these are helpful to create cross-create haze management plans especially in the Greater Mekong Region.

Some more additional points that need to be mentioned on the topic:

a. The critical role that civil society-based monitoring is playing in creating awareness and strengthening policy based on ground reality.
b. Financing: As always, we come across the bottlenecks in financing of sustainable management interventions such as restoration of peatlands, climate smart agriculture and transition to low carbon technologies.
c. Standardisation and inter-operable data sets and structures for smoother cooperation to meet WHO Air Quality Guidelines on air pollution.

Thank you

Transboundary haze in the Asia-Pacific mainly comes from forest, peatland, and farm fires. The smoke crosses borders, harming air quality, health, ecosystems, and economies. Multilateral frameworks like the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution (AATHP) exist, but the challenges remain to be effectively addressed, including weak governance, lack of binding enforcement, slow response, and uneven technical capacity for fire detection, air monitoring, and early warnings.

Nevertheless, there are promising initiatives at the regional and national level to address the challenges of transboundary haze:

• The ASEAN Specialised Meteorological Centre (ASMC) provides daily hotspot and weather analyses.
• The ASEAN Haze Portal shares data and guidance.
• The Second ASEAN Haze-Free Roadmap (2023–2030) focuses on prevention through sustainable land use, cross-sector coordination, and financing.
• Singapore enforces its Transboundary Haze Pollution Act.
• Indonesia has stepped up actions against illegal burning.
• Malaysia and others are improving monitoring and preparedness.

Overall, effective haze management requires strong national measures combined with regional cooperation. Progress has been made in monitoring and early warning, but enforcement, data sharing, and investment in sustainable land and peatland management remain key gaps.

Transboundary haze creates major economic costs across the Asia Pacific region that goes far beyond environmental damage. World Bank and government assessments show that the 2015 haze crisis in Indonesia alone caused economic losses of about USD 16 billion. Regional models further indicate that annual losses from health impacts, tourism disruption, aviation delays, and agricultural damage now reach tens of billions of dollars across South and Southeast Asia. These costs are not evenly distributed. Small and medium enterprises bear a disproportionate burden, especially in tourism and agriculture. Tourism-dependent cities such as Chiang Mai have seen sharp drops in hotel occupancy during severe haze episodes. At the same time, agricultural supply chains in Malaysia and Indonesia face repeated disruptions due to fire bans and land-use restrictions.

From my perspective, this economic dimension is still underrepresented in many haze management discussions, even though it is highly relevant for mobilizing private sector engagement and investment.

Role of the Private Sector in Haze Mitigation

Available evidence shows that private actors are playing a growing role in haze mitigation through supply chain controls, operational responses, and digital tools.

• Large agribusiness companies have adopted satellite-based monitoring and traceability systems to support zero-deforestation commitments. Company disclosures and independent assessments indicate that these measures have led to substantial reductions in fire incidents within monitored concession areas.
• Several plantation firms have set up dedicated fire response units with trained staff, drones, and early warning systems. These efforts have reduced response times during fire outbreaks and helped limit haze spread during peak dry seasons.
• In tourism and service sectors, technology firms have partnered with hotels and workplaces to provide real-time indoor air quality monitoring. These tools guide operational decisions during haze periods and help protect worker health while maintaining business continuity.

I believe these examples show that the private sector can make a meaningful contribution when economic incentives align with environmental outcomes.

Financing and Incentive Mechanisms

Recent developments also point to emerging financing mechanisms that connect haze reduction with private investment.

• Indonesia has introduced peatland restoration credits under its carbon market framework. These credits direct private finance toward rewetting degraded peatlands, which are a major source of transboundary haze in Southeast Asia.
• Results-based incentive programs backed by development banks have compensated farmers for adopting zero-burning practices. Similar approaches have supported mechanized residue management in parts of Viet Nam and show potential for broader regional adoption.

At the same time, available evidence suggests that these mechanisms remain limited in scale and unevenly implemented across countries.

Opportunities for Further Action

Based on observed data and regional experience, I see several opportunities to strengthen haze management efforts.

• Developing standardized tools to quantify the economic and health costs of haze could strengthen policy advocacy and investment decisions at regional forums.
• Platforms that encourage voluntary private-sector commitments to haze-free supply chains could complement existing regulatory measures.
• Targeted support for SMEs, including access to affordable air quality monitoring and risk-reduction tools, could improve resilience in the most affected sectors.

In my view, integrating economic cost assessment with private sector incentives into transboundary haze strategies would strengthen existing government-led monitoring and cooperation efforts. It would also help convert early warning systems into sustained and effective mitigation outcomes.

Many thanks to all who contributed to this query!
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